1.The Units of Syntactic Analysis
(1)Constituents 成分: the component parts of a grammatical sentence. (注意：words為ultimate constituents, 一般稱之為constituents 均指phrasal categories)
(2)Ways to represent the structure of a sentence: (p. 34)
a. tree diagram
b. phrase structure rules
c. labeled brackets
(3)句子主要由三個成分組成：NP Aux VP，能夠移動的單位必須是一個constituent. (p.35 例句3)
(4)Two types of questions: yes-no questions and constituent questions (the answer to the question will be a constituent).
(5)SAI (subject auxiliary inversion): the process to form a non-embedded yes-no question by moving the auxiliary to the left of the subject.
**2.Words and Phrases**
(1)Words: 有lexical meaning，在lexicon裏為詞彙檔，必須有詞性(V, N…)； The syntactic category of a word determines its distribution。
(2)Phrases: 由word組成，沒有lexical meaning，屬於syntax層次，並非詞彙檔，其詞性由head決定。
3.Predicates and Arguments
Students protested vehemently.
Grammatical category:
students a plural noun;
protested a past tense verb;
vehemently an adverb
Grammatical function:
students argument and the subject of protested ;
protested predicate;
vehemently adjunct
試討論 Jeeves is envious of Bertie 的論元結構。
Adjuncts（附加語）: the optional phrasal constituents; an expression which provides additional information about the time, place or manner of an event. (p.40)
Subcategorization of verbs:
(1) transitive verbs: 後面帶一個NP complement
(2) ditransitive verbs: 後面帶2個NPs或是NP + PP
(3) intransitive verbs:
句子結構裏的兩大成分：arguments（論元：主語及賓語）and predicates（謂語 / 述語）。
主語與謂語相對；述語與賓語相對。
predicates 可以是以動詞為主的VP結構，也可以是
句子
主語 謂語(VP) VP-internal NP
External NP (NP) 述語 賓語
(NP)
Argument structure in logic：從語意的角度看，每個句子都算是一個命題proposition。
Maigret imitates Poirot.
Logic representation: I (m,p)
The predicate I ‘imitatie’ takes two arguments---m (for Maigret) and p (for Poirot).
Predicates that requires two arguments are two-place predicates. Intransitive verbs correspond to one-place predicates: they take only one argument.
Argument structure in natural language：不同的predicate 會有不同的argument structure，其論元結構通常因predicate所需的論元數量而定。作為主語的論元通常稱為External NP，作為賓語的論元，因為位於VP結構內，因此又稱為VP-internal NP。
試比較以下兩句的論元結構有何不同？
1. Poirot is restless.
2. Poirot is envious.
1句的predicate為one-place predicate；2句的predicate為two-place predicate，只不過the predicate ‘envious’的第二個argument是一個implicit argument。
試比較以下兩句的論元結構有何不同？
1. Miss Marple is conscious of the problem.
2. Sir Galahad is conscious.
There is a semantic difference between 1 and 2. The ‘conscious’ in 1 is a two-place predicate, while in 2, a one-place predicate.
Theta Theory: verbs 與arguments之間的關係，可以表現在theta roles上面。常見的theta roles類別要注意（見p. 49）
試說明下列句子的theta roles以及thematic structure。
1. Maigret killed Poirot.
the verb ‘kill’ assigns two theta roles : subject ‘Maigret’ agent; object ‘Poirot’ patient; 因此，’kill’ theta-marks its arguments.
2. Maigreti said that hei was ill.
the verb ‘say’ assigns two theta roles: subject NP ‘Maigret’ agent; object clause ‘that he was ill’ theme; the subject NP’Maigret’ and the pronoun ‘he’ are coindexed.
Theta criterion: Each argument is assigned one and only one theta role; Each theta role is assigned to one and only one argument.
4. The Projection Principle: Lexical information is syntactically represented.
5. The assignment of Thematic Roles
Clausal arguments: finite clause, non-finite clause, small clause (verbless clause). (p.57)
1. Maigret believes [this story]NP
2. Maigret believes [that the taxi driver is innocent.]finite clause
3. Maigret believes [the taxi driver to be innocent.]non-finite clause
4. Maigret believes [the taxi driver innocent.]small clause
Complementizers: that, for
1. [That Galahad had left] is very surprising.
2. [For Galahad to have left] is very surprising.
Expletives: 所有的argument 一定要有theta role，但有些成分佔住argument位置，卻沒有theta role，例如expletives。Expletives are elements in NP positions which are not arguments and to which no theta role is assigned. (P.60, 例59a-c)
試說明Adjunct 與 Expletive的差別。
Adjunct有meaning; Expletive沒有meaning。
被動句的by phrase可否稱為expletive？
被動句的by phrase（表agent）雖然不佔argument的位置，卻有theta role (agent)，因此不可稱為expletive。
Sometimes, the sentential subject is extraposed and is in construction with an expletive.
1. It worried Maigret that Poirot should have left.
2. I consider it odd that Poirot should have left.
The expletive it 可以取代clause但不能取代NP。 (p.63, 65a-d)
2. An announcement about the robbery worried Maigret.
3. *It worried Maigret an announcement about the robbery.
There and Existential Sentences：there與it都是expletives，在結構上，there所代替的subject NP必須是個indefinite NP（無定名詞），而且動詞必須是個one-place predicate（intransitive verb）。
There與it的比較：(p.64, 71a-c)
1. 二者皆為expletives，對句意並無影響。
2. it代替子句，there代替indefinite NP。
3. 二者皆無法assign thematic role。
4. 二者皆為fill up the subject position。
5. there的verb必須是one-place predicate。
6. it展現的是extraposition結構；there展現的是existential sentence。
Main Verbs and Auxiliaries：verbs can be divided into two sets: (1) lexical verbs or main verbs, and (2) auxiliaries.
The copula be, like auxiliaries, does not assign any thematic roles.
6. The Extended Projection Principle (EPP)
從expletives存在的意義看來，似乎是每個句子的subject位置不應是空的，句子沒有主語就不成句子。
EPP: every sentence must have a subject.
7. Thematic Roles: Further Discussion
‘ask’與’inquire’的比較：
1. Both semantically select a ‘question’ type of complement.
2. Categorial selection (c-selection):
ask clausal complement / NP
inquire clausal complement
Eg. I asked what the time was.
the time.
I inquired what the time was.
*the time.
Additional Reading:
Raford, Andrew (2004) English Syntax: An Introduction. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. (Chap. 2: Words)
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